[June 2008]
Report post-graduate course in Medical Anthropology, University of Milano Bicocca (2007-2008)
1. Factors of permanence and disappearance of indigenous traditional medicine in Mexico
Indigenous cultures of Mexico with an extensive knowledge of medical practices that, although there has been amended over the centuries, are still perpetuated by the knowledge of specialists who have trained within the same groups, indigenous folk. This
medical knowledge is basically composed of a combination of medical knowledge and pre-Hispanic tradition of the therapeutic imported from European settlers after the conquest. The study of native medicinal plants and their healing field was a comparison of therapeutic practices that were not very different at that time (Signorini, Wolf, 1989).
The current use of certain herbs and plants, the steam bath, the blood-letting and other practices often linked to magical-religious rituals are testimony cultural aspects that continue to play a key role in creating cultural representations of health and illness and their treatment in the indigenous communities in Mexico. This system of knowledge has been passed from generation to generation through the daily practice and family practice specific professional healers.
The resources used for the treatment of ailments are easy to find because usually belong around environmental or drugs or remedies are easy to acquire or low cost.
The permanence of traditional medicine is subject to factors that facilitate the persistence and others, constitute an obstacle, contribute to its progressive disappeared.
A major factor that favors the perpetuation of traditional medical practices is the existence of healers recognized specialists (curanderos, parteras, hueseros, hierbateros, etc.). That not only provide the conditions for continuity of medical knowledge, are considered the custodians knowledge of mythological, cosmological, and magical-religious that facilitate communication and understanding with the local indigenous population with whom they share the same system of meanings. Also
indigenous families living in the most remote areas can rely on their own extensive knowledge of practices and remedies, which include a proven competence regarding the therapeutic properties of plants and grasses that constitute the foundations of traditional medicine.
Another factor contributing to the perpetuation and cost effectiveness of traditional medicine so much about the remedies used and for services provided.
But the permanence of traditional medicine can not only be related to socio-cultural factors as it expresses a certain level of efficacy in the treatment and cure of certain diseases affecting the indigenous population frequently (forms of gastroenteritis, disease respiratory and skin), but it shows especially in reference to those disorders that Western medicine has classified as a psychosomatic origin.
Institutional policies on health are the main obstacle to the retention of medical knowledge since the alternative national programs are reluctant recognition of specific regional and implement resources for their development through research and the hoped-ordination and co-existence existing knowledge. The protection of health in remote and marginal inhabited by indigenous peoples is usually entrusted to the occasional presence of health centers, usually located in the cabecera municipal , which is the urban center of the capital reference of a larger municipal area. Rather than serve as a resource for the health of local people it is often the cause of conflict. The health centers because they provide only the care of emergencies and have rules and schedules completely divorced from the socio-cultural contexts in which indigenous people are included. For indigenous peoples the "clinical" is only the last option which can refer both to its ability to treat many ailments with traditional remedies, and for the uselessness of the fact that the health center frequently reject the requests care because they are not considered sufficiently serious to warrant intervention. Conflicts due to apparent incompatibilities and strong cultural prejudice, intolerance contribute to the increased of medical and paramedical personnel to the natives by increasing the level of general dissatisfaction of the population against the health centers, which in some cases are not even supported by research and analysis of health status and needs of the population of the district.
Indigenous cultures of Mexico with an extensive knowledge of medical practices that, although there has been amended over the centuries, are still perpetuated by the knowledge of specialists who have trained within the same groups, indigenous folk. This
medical knowledge is basically composed of a combination of medical knowledge and pre-Hispanic tradition of the therapeutic imported from European settlers after the conquest. The study of native medicinal plants and their healing field was a comparison of therapeutic practices that were not very different at that time (Signorini, Wolf, 1989).
The current use of certain herbs and plants, the steam bath, the blood-letting and other practices often linked to magical-religious rituals are testimony cultural aspects that continue to play a key role in creating cultural representations of health and illness and their treatment in the indigenous communities in Mexico. This system of knowledge has been passed from generation to generation through the daily practice and family practice specific professional healers.
The resources used for the treatment of ailments are easy to find because usually belong around environmental or drugs or remedies are easy to acquire or low cost.
The permanence of traditional medicine is subject to factors that facilitate the persistence and others, constitute an obstacle, contribute to its progressive disappeared.
A major factor that favors the perpetuation of traditional medical practices is the existence of healers recognized specialists (curanderos, parteras, hueseros, hierbateros, etc.). That not only provide the conditions for continuity of medical knowledge, are considered the custodians knowledge of mythological, cosmological, and magical-religious that facilitate communication and understanding with the local indigenous population with whom they share the same system of meanings. Also
indigenous families living in the most remote areas can rely on their own extensive knowledge of practices and remedies, which include a proven competence regarding the therapeutic properties of plants and grasses that constitute the foundations of traditional medicine.
Another factor contributing to the perpetuation and cost effectiveness of traditional medicine so much about the remedies used and for services provided.
But the permanence of traditional medicine can not only be related to socio-cultural factors as it expresses a certain level of efficacy in the treatment and cure of certain diseases affecting the indigenous population frequently (forms of gastroenteritis, disease respiratory and skin), but it shows especially in reference to those disorders that Western medicine has classified as a psychosomatic origin.
Institutional policies on health are the main obstacle to the retention of medical knowledge since the alternative national programs are reluctant recognition of specific regional and implement resources for their development through research and the hoped-ordination and co-existence existing knowledge. The protection of health in remote and marginal inhabited by indigenous peoples is usually entrusted to the occasional presence of health centers, usually located in the cabecera municipal , which is the urban center of the capital reference of a larger municipal area. Rather than serve as a resource for the health of local people it is often the cause of conflict. The health centers because they provide only the care of emergencies and have rules and schedules completely divorced from the socio-cultural contexts in which indigenous people are included. For indigenous peoples the "clinical" is only the last option which can refer both to its ability to treat many ailments with traditional remedies, and for the uselessness of the fact that the health center frequently reject the requests care because they are not considered sufficiently serious to warrant intervention. Conflicts due to apparent incompatibilities and strong cultural prejudice, intolerance contribute to the increased of medical and paramedical personnel to the natives by increasing the level of general dissatisfaction of the population against the health centers, which in some cases are not even supported by research and analysis of health status and needs of the population of the district.
The conflict was more evident then manifest in the treatment of difficult births in which the injury to the parteras (according to the doctors responsible for the health center to practice massage inappropriate or dangerous to encourage childbirth) had become a major problem. On the other hand is known to the chronicle of the Mexican press, from the late nineties, which has reported numerous cases of indigenous people who are been tricked by the staff of the Secretaria de Salud to undergo sterilization operations with the promise of substantial aid to the government in the health field (doctors, drugs, etc..), education (scholarships) and other general benefits measures to reduce poverty through birth control. In practice, it is said that doctors working in remote indigenous areas that they wanted to ask for a transfer had to count a number of vasectomias y salpingoclasia for this to work. In short, a full-fledged plan ethnocidal.
In that sense, the study should be deepened in the direction of greater understanding because of social inequality are inscribed in the bodies of Indians and are perpetrated through the management of biomedicine and its organization in the remote indigenous areas.
Staying in the wake of cultural analysis, the influence of the dominant culture is absorbed by the indigenous population through the same areas of institutional action (school, government, etc..) And is internalized devaluation resulting in a perception of practices and meanings indigenous cultural designated as an area traditionally linked to the past must be overcome or be overcome.
Only in recent years, the Secretaria de Salud has implemented new paradigms in the definition of programs Health Care that take into account the indigenous healing practices in intercultural perspective.
The loss of natural resources is another obstacle for the progressive reduction of the vegetation of that part of the population emigrating in urban contexts, for obvious reasons has difficulties in gaining access to traditional resources.
From therapeutic point of view we can say that traditional medicine uses remedies indigenous material and symbolic groped to restore a lost balance between both physical and spiritual components of the individual is, in society, its relations with the community.
The etiology of the disease in representation of indigenous traditional medicine, are sought in the pattern of occurrence of an imbalance due to failure of a thermal type on an axis dual hot-cold or a mixture of soul or spiritual one in which the individual is the spiritual component of the kit change or lose as a result of particular events, such as emotional stress or more commonly a scare (Sustiva). Each doctor has a remedy intrinsic thermal quality and therefore can be evaluated as a cold or hot, and applies the principle contrary contrariis curantur diseases whose origin is supposed, according to a symbolic statements, possesses a thermal quality otherwise.
2. Sierra Mazatec: the ritual use of hallucinogenic drugs for curative purposes leaks
Following this premise clearly generic and general, I want to focus on a particular ritual practice that is in use among the Mazatec Sierra Oaxaca, which includes the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms for the treatment and cure of various states of distress and disease considered to be of different origin.
The ritual is generally driven by local healers NIHE's those who ingested mushrooms and administration to patients induce a 'dream state' like an ecstatic journey dense visions that take on meaning through the interpretation of the symbolic language of the fungi which provide information on the nature of the problems that plague the person concerned and suggest possible solutions.
The reasons for which the Mazatec ritual use of mushrooms for consumption are many.
research is frequently the solution to a specific physical health problem whose cause often is linked to the symbolic sphere, as in the case of a Susto (in the literal translation of 'fright'), it is believed that the emotion individual face losing part of his kit of spiritual forces causing problems to the organism. For example, Tia Marta, thirty years old Mazatec woman, a mother of three children, believed to have been helped many times by fungi in the care of his frequent illnesses. In particular, weakened his eyesight has been restored in prodigious form after a series of rituals in which he had ingested the mushrooms. At Tio Polonius was also fared better since after being hit by a runaway bull had risked his life and was due to stay in bed for a very sore back for months, in addition to having a Susto remedied, or a fright, that led to alteration of its life force, which causes other problems became physical. He too had been healing with mushrooms ingested during many rituals.
In other cases, the mushrooms can be employed for divination by the NIHE in order to find an animal lost or stolen, or to establish contact with the world of the dead. According to the interpretation of indigenous fungi have miraculous healing properties. They are always swallowed whole even number, usually after they have been soaked in a mixture of water and cocoa by adding a few drops of blood of turkey. For the sacred mushrooms can be referred to as ndi Xhi jtho or el que Brota (the one that blooms) or na t'iara na'mina , whose literal translation is saliva of God, and is to indicate the ability that mushrooms have to talk to those who ingest, the metaphor of saliva would therefore be due to the 'ability to speak' of the fungus. Before the ceremony we must observe a period of reflection, fasting and abstinence from sexual relations. The day before the night of the ceremony must be passed in the company of a boy or girl until the start of the ceremony, perhaps to find a playful mood and carefree free from worries, to note that fungi are metaphorically similar to figures children and often appear in his hallucinogenic visions in this form. Usually the person in question receives a larger amount of mushrooms, while there appears to be no fixed rules for the other participants the ritual that can also abstain altogether from their ingestion by participating in the ceremony anyway. For the ritual to which I also attended the children were given a pair of small mushrooms, or you have made them swallow the mixture in which the mushrooms were soaked before consumption. The ceremony takes place in complete darkness and its main purpose is to seek a deeper level of individual introspection, an examination of conscience and a revision of personal history that could allow the emergence of any possible discomfort that becomes the object of analysis led that by the officiant, as needed, take the necessary measures to decrease the intensity of the hallucinogen or these calls to prayer, or offering solutions and suggestions pantry interpreting the language of the fungi. The individual introspection often takes the form of collective analysis time to identify the causes of discomfort.
The mental changes caused by the ingestion of mushrooms is just the physiological framework which makes possible the emergence of visions and the content of these visions is determined by cultural background, religious belief, and the native representation of the invisible world (Scarduelli, 2007: 135). The association between the journey and the dream is based on the Mazatec belief that the human mind can wander during sleep. According to the interpretation of the indigenous nature of knowledge and premonitory dream and may give indications on the probable future of the events and the fate of individuals. But if the dream images appear when you sleep, without which we can therefore intervene in the course of events to which they must necessarily be present in a passive way, the trip is ecstatic, in contrast, induced a dream state in conditions of wakefulness, product designed to intervene directly on the issues that cause discomfort and cause an imbalance in the relationship with nature or with society. It is a journey to a parallel reality and transcendent but where is the source and support everyday. The project became possible through the transcendent experience of men of knowledge who claim to be able to consciously move in the dimension of ecstatic hallucinogenic trip interpreting the language of the fungi to reduce it to the patient's personal history and the complex social fabric of the community that they know deeply.
The NIHE's have a crucial role in the preservation of ritual and their shape is of great importance in the horizon of community relations established through the management of ritual practices. But in a scenario EU increasingly deconstructed the modernization of lifestyles, it is leading to a progressive lack nell'officio parts of 'specialist of the sacred' due to a significant crisis of vocations in the population of young Mazatec. The younger generations have different expectations of Mazatec and receive the traditional cultural practices related to the scope and, with them, the role of the NIHE, as a whole is now inevitably linked to the past. The few
NIHE's operating suffer also, increasingly, the competition of medicine on the side of their healing practices, as compared to the sphere of sacred and ritual has become increasingly present operated by the interference of proselytizing missionaries of different religious movements. The gradual disintegration
Community horizon and the subsequent restructuring of social relations is also, increasingly, in a modern setting religious and political partisan, who cracked the system of 'primordial alliances' based mainly on family ties. The friction between families and among their members are increasingly attributable to different party affiliations or membership in different groups of religious preaching. In this context, there have been many NIHE's accused of witchcraft exercised for political ends, and many of them were murdered as a result of these allegations. From traditional role as solver of conflicts and disputes handled on a symbolic level, the healer is always most often understood as an element able to unleash and foster dissension and discord. For the reasons stated
has produced an increasing shortage of NIHE's , which is causing the disappearance of the social scene that figure in the past has been the mediator between the individual and the community, the depositary of the common values \u200b\u200bcapable of restore the biological individual and social relations by managing scope and symbolic ritual, in addition to being the key element needed for the traditional celebration of the rite of ingestion of the sacred mushrooms.
For this reason, the main worship began to grow necessarily, without the presence of specialized figures, moving toward a domestic ritual. In the family the rite is usually officiated by women who are traditionally deep knowledge of empirical therapeutic properties of herbs, and who have inherited a leadership role in conducting the ceremony beginning to adopt, within the family, the role traditionally played by the NIHE .
On other occasions, the rite can be celebrated by those female figures rezadoras , people usually close to the Catholic Church, often from the confraternities of prayer, leading the ceremony mainly by adhering to a Christian vision perpetuating old elements syncretic and introducing new ones. To date, the ceremony was officiated by using ritual elements that refer to myth and cosmology of indigenous: the copal, resin burning in interpreting indigenous forms the first one, which opens the way to the other dimension and connects with it; hen eggs, which are valued as 'those who can speak' as they can communicate with the spirits of masters of nature and the turkey (or something that represents such an egg or feathers) estimated as a wise, able to solve any problem for its ability to communicate with the other dimension and because of this characteristic is usually buried with ritual offerings, cocoa beans, are money and goodness, indigenous beliefs are offered to Chakunes , guardian spirits, as a pledge to switch to the other reality, cocoa also has the properties help free the spirit of a person who has been 'imprisoned' during the journey, the fresh tobacco or picietl regarded as a powerful defense against Vientos Malos and evil spirits, so before the ceremony the joints of the limbs are rubbed with chopped fresh tobacco leaves which is also packaged in small packets to hold in his pocket for protection, parrot feathers, rich messages and intermediaries 'without fear', are also always present on the altar candles that represent life and the existence of human and fresh flowers evoke joy and tenderness. On the altar, placed in strictly east-west, are also a variety of images and icons that have been integrated into the Catholic ceremonial scenario through the years demonstrating how the ritual has gradually incorporated elements of symbolic meanings and practices borrowed from Christian religion.
The most obvious change and radical departure from the traditional structure of the rite, therefore, lies in the absence of NIHE joint reference to the disappearance of Community dimension for which the ritual is now mostly a form of family integration and strengthening of the family unit. Also in Boege also mentioned the important role played by relatives in the performance of the ritual, but always in relation to the restoration of referring to a wider social dimension.
Bibliography
Bartolomé MA, 1997, Costumbre y Gente de razon de people. Siglo XXI Editores, INI, México DF.
M. Bloch, 1974, "Symbols, Song, Dance and Features of Articulation", Archives Européennes de Sociologie, XV, trans. en. "symbols, songs, e caratteristiche di articolazione dance. Religion and a way Estrema tradizionale di Authority? ", In: G. Carchia, Salizzoni R., 1980, Estetica and anthropology. Arte e comunicazione fra i Primitivi . Rosenberg & Sellier, Torino.
Boege E., 1988, The Mazatec to the nation. Veitiuno century editors, Mexico DF. Carmagnani
M., 1988, The regresso of the gods. Fondo de Cultura Economica, Mexico DF. Cuturi
F., 2004, In nome di Dio. L'printed Missionaria all'alterità di fronte. Meltemi ed., Rome.
Levi-Strauss, 1973, Antropologie structurale deux. Plon, Parigi.
Lucero LJ, 2003, "The Politics of Ritual," in: Current Anthropology, Volume 44, Number 4, August-October 2003, pp. 523-558, The University of Chicago Press.
E. Marozzi, F. Mari, E. Bertol, 1996, magical plants. The Literature Publishing House, Florence.
Piñeiro JJ, 2000, the Hong El despertar, Editorial Grijalbo, México DF.
Ivo Quaranta, (ed.) 2006, Medical Anthropology. The basic texts , Raffaello Cortina Ed
Salas Lucila Caballero, 1993, Prácticas Médicas Mayas, INI - SEDESOL, México.
Scarduelli P., 2007, Shamans, sorcerers, priests. An anthropological study rituals. Sellerio publisher, Palermo.
Signorini, I. - Wolf, A. 1989 ejes Los tres de la vida. Almas, cuerpo, enfermedad entre los Nahua de la Sierra de Puebla . Xalapa: Universidad Veracruzana
Tomei G., 2004, the left of the Father. Sociology and theology of liberation in Latin America . Franco Angeli, Milano.
G. Wasson, 1980, The Wondrous Mushroom . Micolatry in Mesoamerica, McGraw-Hill, NY;
trad. sp.: maravilloso El Hongo: teonanacatl . Fondo de Cultural Economica, Mexico DF, 1998.
The mental changes caused by the ingestion of mushrooms is just the physiological framework which makes possible the emergence of visions and the content of these visions is determined by cultural background, religious belief, and the native representation of the invisible world (Scarduelli, 2007: 135). The association between the journey and the dream is based on the Mazatec belief that the human mind can wander during sleep. According to the interpretation of the indigenous nature of knowledge and premonitory dream and may give indications on the probable future of the events and the fate of individuals. But if the dream images appear when you sleep, without which we can therefore intervene in the course of events to which they must necessarily be present in a passive way, the trip is ecstatic, in contrast, induced a dream state in conditions of wakefulness, product designed to intervene directly on the issues that cause discomfort and cause an imbalance in the relationship with nature or with society. It is a journey to a parallel reality and transcendent but where is the source and support everyday. The project became possible through the transcendent experience of men of knowledge who claim to be able to consciously move in the dimension of ecstatic hallucinogenic trip interpreting the language of the fungi to reduce it to the patient's personal history and the complex social fabric of the community that they know deeply.
The NIHE's have a crucial role in the preservation of ritual and their shape is of great importance in the horizon of community relations established through the management of ritual practices. But in a scenario EU increasingly deconstructed the modernization of lifestyles, it is leading to a progressive lack nell'officio parts of 'specialist of the sacred' due to a significant crisis of vocations in the population of young Mazatec. The younger generations have different expectations of Mazatec and receive the traditional cultural practices related to the scope and, with them, the role of the NIHE, as a whole is now inevitably linked to the past. The few
NIHE's operating suffer also, increasingly, the competition of medicine on the side of their healing practices, as compared to the sphere of sacred and ritual has become increasingly present operated by the interference of proselytizing missionaries of different religious movements. The gradual disintegration
Community horizon and the subsequent restructuring of social relations is also, increasingly, in a modern setting religious and political partisan, who cracked the system of 'primordial alliances' based mainly on family ties. The friction between families and among their members are increasingly attributable to different party affiliations or membership in different groups of religious preaching. In this context, there have been many NIHE's accused of witchcraft exercised for political ends, and many of them were murdered as a result of these allegations. From traditional role as solver of conflicts and disputes handled on a symbolic level, the healer is always most often understood as an element able to unleash and foster dissension and discord. For the reasons stated
has produced an increasing shortage of NIHE's , which is causing the disappearance of the social scene that figure in the past has been the mediator between the individual and the community, the depositary of the common values \u200b\u200bcapable of restore the biological individual and social relations by managing scope and symbolic ritual, in addition to being the key element needed for the traditional celebration of the rite of ingestion of the sacred mushrooms.
For this reason, the main worship began to grow necessarily, without the presence of specialized figures, moving toward a domestic ritual. In the family the rite is usually officiated by women who are traditionally deep knowledge of empirical therapeutic properties of herbs, and who have inherited a leadership role in conducting the ceremony beginning to adopt, within the family, the role traditionally played by the NIHE .
On other occasions, the rite can be celebrated by those female figures rezadoras , people usually close to the Catholic Church, often from the confraternities of prayer, leading the ceremony mainly by adhering to a Christian vision perpetuating old elements syncretic and introducing new ones. To date, the ceremony was officiated by using ritual elements that refer to myth and cosmology of indigenous: the copal, resin burning in interpreting indigenous forms the first one, which opens the way to the other dimension and connects with it; hen eggs, which are valued as 'those who can speak' as they can communicate with the spirits of masters of nature and the turkey (or something that represents such an egg or feathers) estimated as a wise, able to solve any problem for its ability to communicate with the other dimension and because of this characteristic is usually buried with ritual offerings, cocoa beans, are money and goodness, indigenous beliefs are offered to Chakunes , guardian spirits, as a pledge to switch to the other reality, cocoa also has the properties help free the spirit of a person who has been 'imprisoned' during the journey, the fresh tobacco or picietl regarded as a powerful defense against Vientos Malos and evil spirits, so before the ceremony the joints of the limbs are rubbed with chopped fresh tobacco leaves which is also packaged in small packets to hold in his pocket for protection, parrot feathers, rich messages and intermediaries 'without fear', are also always present on the altar candles that represent life and the existence of human and fresh flowers evoke joy and tenderness. On the altar, placed in strictly east-west, are also a variety of images and icons that have been integrated into the Catholic ceremonial scenario through the years demonstrating how the ritual has gradually incorporated elements of symbolic meanings and practices borrowed from Christian religion.
The most obvious change and radical departure from the traditional structure of the rite, therefore, lies in the absence of NIHE joint reference to the disappearance of Community dimension for which the ritual is now mostly a form of family integration and strengthening of the family unit. Also in Boege also mentioned the important role played by relatives in the performance of the ritual, but always in relation to the restoration of referring to a wider social dimension.
Bibliography
Bartolomé MA, 1997, Costumbre y Gente de razon de people. Siglo XXI Editores, INI, México DF.
M. Bloch, 1974, "Symbols, Song, Dance and Features of Articulation", Archives Européennes de Sociologie, XV, trans. en. "symbols, songs, e caratteristiche di articolazione dance. Religion and a way Estrema tradizionale di Authority? ", In: G. Carchia, Salizzoni R., 1980, Estetica and anthropology. Arte e comunicazione fra i Primitivi . Rosenberg & Sellier, Torino.
Boege E., 1988, The Mazatec to the nation. Veitiuno century editors, Mexico DF. Carmagnani
M., 1988, The regresso of the gods. Fondo de Cultura Economica, Mexico DF. Cuturi
F., 2004, In nome di Dio. L'printed Missionaria all'alterità di fronte. Meltemi ed., Rome.
Levi-Strauss, 1973, Antropologie structurale deux. Plon, Parigi.
Lucero LJ, 2003, "The Politics of Ritual," in: Current Anthropology, Volume 44, Number 4, August-October 2003, pp. 523-558, The University of Chicago Press.
E. Marozzi, F. Mari, E. Bertol, 1996, magical plants. The Literature Publishing House, Florence.
Piñeiro JJ, 2000, the Hong El despertar, Editorial Grijalbo, México DF.
Ivo Quaranta, (ed.) 2006, Medical Anthropology. The basic texts , Raffaello Cortina Ed
Salas Lucila Caballero, 1993, Prácticas Médicas Mayas, INI - SEDESOL, México.
Scarduelli P., 2007, Shamans, sorcerers, priests. An anthropological study rituals. Sellerio publisher, Palermo.
Signorini, I. - Wolf, A. 1989 ejes Los tres de la vida. Almas, cuerpo, enfermedad entre los Nahua de la Sierra de Puebla . Xalapa: Universidad Veracruzana
Tomei G., 2004, the left of the Father. Sociology and theology of liberation in Latin America . Franco Angeli, Milano.
G. Wasson, 1980, The Wondrous Mushroom . Micolatry in Mesoamerica, McGraw-Hill, NY;
trad. sp.: maravilloso El Hongo: teonanacatl . Fondo de Cultural Economica, Mexico DF, 1998.
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